Approaches to meditation

The methods of meditation taught by the Buddha in the Pali Canon fall into two broad systems. One is the development of serenity (samatha), which aims at concentration (samādhi); the other is the development of insight (vipassanā), which aims at understanding or wisdom (paññā). In the Buddha’s system of mental training the role of serenity is subordinated to that of insight because the latter is the crucial instrument needed to uproot the ignorance at the bottom of saṁsāric bondage. The attainments possible through serenity meditation were known to Indian contemplatives long before the advent of the Buddha.

Mindfulness of breathing, to which the Buddha devotes an entire sutta (MN 118), provides an ever accessible meditation subject that can be pursued through all four jhānas and also used to develop insight. Another method for attaining the jhānas mentioned in the suttas is the four divine abodes (brahmavihāra) — boundless loving-kindness, compassion, altruistic joy (i.e., gladness at others’ success), and equanimity (MN 7, MN 40, etc.). Tradition holds the first three to be capable of leading to the three lower jhānas, the last of inducing the fourth jhāna. The immaterial attainments are to be reached by fixing the mind on the specific object of each attainment — infinite space, infinite consciousness, nothingness, and the state that can only be described as neither percipient nor as non-percipient.

Whereas in serenity meditation the meditator attempts to focus upon a single uniform object abstracted from actual experience, in insight meditation the endeavour is made to contemplate, from a position of detached observation, the ever-shifting flux of experience itself in order to penetrate through to the essential nature of bodily and mental phenomena. The Buddha teaches that the craving and clinging that hold us in bondage are sustained by a network of “conceivings” (maññita) — deluded views, conceits, and suppositions that the mind fabricates by an internal process of mental commentary or “proliferation” (papañca) and then projects out upon the world, taking them to possess objective validity. The task of insight meditation is to sever our attachments by enabling us to pierce through this net of conceptual projections in order to see things as they really are. To see things as they really are means to see them in terms of the three characteristics — as impermanent, as painful or suffering, and as not self.

‘Monks, this is the direct path for the purification of beings, for the surmounting of sorrow and lamentation, for the passing away of pain and dejection, for the attainment of the true way, for the realization of Nibbāna—namely, the four establishments of mindfulness.’” That is what the Blessed One said. The monks were satisfied and delighted in the Blessed One’s words. (MN 10: Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta; I 55–63)

“What are the four?

Here, bhikkhus, a bhikkhu137 abides contemplating the body as a body, ardent, fully aware, and mindful, having put away covetousness and grief for the world.138
He abides contemplating feelings as feelings, ardent, fully aware, and mindful, having put away covetousness and grief for the world.
He abides contemplating mind as mind, ardent, fully aware, and mindful, having put away covetousness and grief for the world.
He abides contemplating mind-objects as mind-objects, ardent, fully aware, and mindful, having put away covetousness and grief for the world.139

[contemplation of the body]

[1. Mindfulness of Breathing]

4. “And how, monks, does a monk dwell contemplating the body in the body? Here a monk, gone to the forest, to the foot of a tree, or to an empty hut, sits down; having folded his legs crosswise, straightened his body, and established mindfulness in front of him, just mindful he breathes in, mindful he breathes out. Breathing in long, he understands: ‘I breathe in long’; or breathing out long, he understands: ‘I breathe out long.’ Breathing in short, he understands: ‘I breathe in short’; or breathing out short, he understands: ‘I breathe out short.’28 He trains thus: ‘I will breathe in experiencing the whole body’; he trains thus: ‘I will breathe out experiencing the whole body.’29 He trains thus: ‘I will breathe in tranquilizing the bodily formation’; he trains thus: ‘I will breathe out tranquilizing the bodily formation.’30 Just as a skilled lathe-worker or his apprentice, when making a long turn, understands: ‘I make a long turn’; or, when making a short turn, understands: ‘I make a short turn’; so too, breathing in long, a monk understands: ‘I breathe in long’ … he trains thus: ‘I will breathe out tranquilizing the bodily formation.’ 5.

“In this way he dwells contemplating the body in the body internally, or he dwells contemplating the body in the body externally, or he dwells contemplating the body in the body both internally and externally.31 Or else he dwells contemplating in the body its nature of arising, or he dwells contemplating in the body its nature of vanishing, or he dwells contemplating in the body its nature of both arising and vanishing.32 Or else mindfulness that ‘there is a body’ is simply established in him to the extent necessary for bare knowledge and repeated mindfulness. And he dwells independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That is how a monk dwells contemplating the body in the body.

[2. The Four Postures]

6. “Again, monks, when walking, a monk understands: ‘I am walking’; when standing, he understands: ‘I am standing’; when sitting, he understands: ‘I am sitting’; when lying down, he understands: ‘I am lying down’; or he understands accordingly however his body is disposed.33 7. “In this way he dwells contemplating the body in the body internally, externally, and both internally and externally.… And he dwells independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That too is how a monk dwells contemplating the body in the body.

[3. Clear Comprehension]

8. “Again, monks, a monk is one who acts with clear comprehension when going forward and returning;34 who acts with clear comprehension when looking ahead and looking away; who acts with clear comprehension when bending and stretching his limbs; who acts with clear comprehension when wearing his robes and carrying his outer robe and bowl; who acts with clear comprehension when eating, drinking, chewing, and tasting; who acts with clear comprehension when defecating and urinating; who acts with clear comprehension when walking, standing, sitting, falling asleep, waking up, talking, and keeping silent. 9. “In this way he dwells contemplating the body in the body internally, externally, and both internally and externally.… And he dwells independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That too is how a monk dwells contemplating the body in the body.

[4. Unattractiveness of the Body]

10. “Again, monks, a monk reviews this same body up from the soles of the feet and down from the top of the hair, bounded by skin, as full of many kinds of impurity thus: ‘In this body there are head-hairs, body-hairs, nails, teeth, skin, flesh, sinews, bones, bone-marrow, kidneys, heart, liver, diaphragm, spleen, lungs, intestines, mesentery, stomach, feces, bile, phlegm, pus, blood, sweat, fat, tears, grease, spittle, snot, oil of the joints, and urine.’35 Just as though there were a bag with an opening at both ends full of many sorts of grain, such as hill rice, red rice, beans, peas, millet, and white rice, and a man with good eyes were to open it and review it thus: ‘This is hill rice, this is red rice, these are beans, these are peas, this is millet, this is white rice’; so too, a monk reviews this same body … as full of many kinds of impurity thus: ‘In this body there are head-hairs … and urine.’ 11. “In this way he dwells contemplating the body in the body internally, externally, and both internally and externally.… And he dwells independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That too is how a monk dwells contemplating the body in the body.

5. Elements]

12. “Again, monks, a monk reviews this same body, however it is placed, however disposed, as consisting of elements thus: ‘In this body there are the earth element, the water element, the fire element, and the air element.’36 Just as though a skilled butcher or his apprentice had killed a cow and were seated at the crossroads with it cut up into pieces; so too, a monk reviews this same body … as consisting of elements thus: ‘In this body there are the earth element, the water element, the fire element, and the air element.’ 13. “In this way he dwells contemplating the body in the body internally, externally, and both internally and externally.… And he dwells independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That too is how a monk dwells contemplating the body in the body.

[6–14. The Nine Charnel Ground Contemplations] 14.

“Again, monks, as though he were to see a corpse thrown aside in a charnel ground, one, two, or three days dead, bloated, livid, and oozing matter, a monk compares this same body with it thus: ‘This body too is of the same nature, it will be like that, it is not exempt from that fate.’37 15. “In this way he dwells contemplating the body in the body internally, externally, and both internally and externally.… And he dwells independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That too is how a monk dwells contemplating the body in the body. 16. “Again, as though he were to see a corpse thrown aside in a charnel ground, being devoured by crows, hawks, vultures, dogs, jackals, or various kinds of worms, a monk compares this same body with it thus: ‘This body too is of the same nature, it will be like that, it is not exempt from that fate.’ 17. “…That too is how a monk dwells contemplating the body in the body. 18–24. “Again, as though he were to see a corpse thrown aside in a charnel ground, a skeleton with flesh and blood, held together with sinews … a fleshless skeleton smeared with blood, held together with sinews … a skeleton without flesh and blood, held together with sinews … disconnected bones scattered in all directions—here a hand-bone, there a foot-bone, here a shin-bone, there a thigh-bone, here a hip-bone, there a back-bone, here the skull—a monk compares this same body with it thus: ‘This body too is of the same nature, it will be like that, it is not exempt from that fate.’38 25. “…That too is how a monk dwells contemplating the body in the body. 26–30. “Again, as though he were to see a corpse thrown aside in a charnel ground, bones bleached white, the color of shells … bones heaped up … bones more than a year old, rotted and crumbled to dust, a monk compares this same body with it thus: ‘This body too is of the same nature, it will be like that, it is not exempt from that fate.’ 31. “In this way he dwells contemplating the body in the body internally, or he dwells contemplating the body in the body externally, or he dwells contemplating the body in the body both internally and externally. Or else he dwells contemplating in the body its nature of arising, or he dwells contemplating in the body its nature of vanishing, or he dwells contemplating in the body its nature of both arising and vanishing. Or else mindfulness that ‘there is a body’ is simply established in him to the extent necessary for bare knowledge and repeated mindfulness. And he dwells independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That too is how a monk dwells contemplating the body in the body.

[contemplation of feeling]

“And how, monks, does a monk dwell contemplating feelings in feelings?39 Here, when feeling a pleasant feeling, a monk understands: ‘I feel a pleasant feeling’; when feeling a painful feeling, he understands: ‘I feel a painful feeling’; when feeling a neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling, he understands: ‘I feel a neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling.’ When feeling a carnal pleasant feeling, he understands: ‘I feel a carnal pleasant feeling’; when feeling a spiritual pleasant feeling, he understands: ‘I feel a spiritual pleasant feeling’; when feeling a carnal painful feeling, he understands: ‘I feel a carnal painful feeling’; when feeling a spiritual painful feeling, he understands: ‘I feel a spiritual painful feeling’; when feeling a carnal neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling, he understands: ‘I feel a carnal neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling’; when feeling a spiritual neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling, he understands: ‘I feel a spiritual neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling.’ 33. “In this way he dwells contemplating feelings in feelings internally, or he dwells contemplating feelings in feelings externally, or he dwells contemplating feelings in feelings both internally and externally. Or else he dwells contemplating in feelings their nature of arising, or he dwells contemplating in feelings their nature of vanishing, or he dwells contemplating in feelings their nature of both arising and vanishing.40 Or else mindfulness that ‘there is feeling’ is simply established in him to the extent necessary for bare knowledge and repeated mindfulness. And he dwells independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That is how a monk dwells contemplating feelings in feelings.

[contemplation of mind]

“And how, monks, does a monk dwell contemplating mind in mind?41 Here a monk understands a mind with lust as a mind with lust, and a mind without lust as a mind without lust. He understands a mind with hatred as a mind with hatred, and a mind without hatred as a mind without hatred. He understands a mind with delusion as a mind with delusion, and a mind without delusion as a mind without delusion. He understands a contracted mind as contracted, and a distracted mind as distracted. He understands an exalted mind as exalted, and an unexalted mind as unexalted. He understands a surpassable mind as surpassable, and an unsurpassable mind as unsurpassable. He understands a concentrated mind as concentrated, and an unconcentrated mind as unconcentrated. He understands a liberated mind as liberated, and an unliberated mind as unliberated.42 35. “In this way he dwells contemplating mind in mind internally, or he dwells contemplating mind in mind externally, or he dwells contemplating mind in mind both internally and externally. Or else he dwells contemplating in mind its nature of arising, or he dwells contemplating in mind its nature of vanishing, or he dwells contemplating in mind its nature of both arising and vanishing.43 Or else mindfulness that ‘there is mind’ is simply established in him to the extent necessary for bare knowledge and repeated mindfulness. And he dwells independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That is how a monk dwells contemplating mind as mind.

[contemplation of phenomena]

[1. The Five Hindrances]

36. “And how, monks, does a monk dwell contemplating phenomena in phenomena? Here a monk dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of the five hindrances.44 And how does a monk dwell contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of the five hindrances? Here, when there is sensual desire in him, a monk understands: ‘There is sensual desire in me’; or when there is no sensual desire in him, he understands: ‘There is no sensual desire in me’; and he also understands how unarisen sensual desire arises, and how arisen sensual desire is abandoned, and how abandoned sensual desire does not arise again in the future.’45 “When there is ill will in him … When there is dullness and drowsiness in him … When there is restlessness and remorse in him … When there is doubt in him, a monk understands: ‘There is doubt in me’; or when there is no doubt in him, he understands: ‘There is no doubt in me’; and he also understands how the unarisen doubt arises, and how arisen doubt is abandoned, and how abandoned doubt does not arise again in the future. 37. “In this way he dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena internally, or he dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena externally, or he dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena both internally and externally. Or else he dwells contemplating in phenomena their nature of arising, or he dwells contemplating in phenomena their nature of vanishing, or he dwells contemplating in phenomena their nature of both arising and vanishing. Or else mindfulness that ‘there are phenomena’ is simply established in him to the extent necessary for bare knowledge and repeated mindfulness. And he dwells independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That is how a monk dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of the five hindrances.

[2. The Five Aggregates]

38. “Again, monks, a monk dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of the five aggregates subject to clinging.46 And how does a monk dwell contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of the five aggregates affected by clinging? Here a monk understands: ‘Such is form, such its origin, such its passing away; such is feeling, such its origin, such its passing away; such is perception, such its origin, such its passing away; such are the volitional formations, such their origin, such their passing away; such is consciousness, such its origin, such its passing away.’47 39. “In this way he dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena internally, externally, and both internally and externally.… And he dwells independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That is how a monk dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of the five aggregates subject to clinging.

[3. The Six Sense Bases]

40. “Again, monks, a monk dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of the six internal and external sense bases.48 And how does a monk dwell contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of the six internal and external sense bases? Here a monk understands the eye, he understands forms, and he understands the fetter that arises dependent on both; and he also understands how the unarisen fetter arises, and how the arisen fetter is abandoned, and how the abandoned fetter does not arise again in the future.49 “He understands the ear, he understands sounds.… He understands the nose, he understands odors.… He understands the tongue, he understands flavors.… He understands the body, he understands tactile objects.… He understands the mind, he understands phenomena, and he understands the fetter that arises dependent on both; and he also understands how the unarisen fetter arises, and how the arisen fetter is abandoned, and how the abandoned fetter does not arise again in the future. 41. “In this way he dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena internally, externally, and both internally and externally.… And he dwells independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That is how a monk dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of the six internal and external sense bases.

[4. The Seven Enlightenment Factors]

42. “Again, monks, a monk dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of the seven enlightenment factors.50 And how does a monk dwell contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of the seven enlightenment factors? Here, when there is the mindfulness enlightenment factor in him, a monk understands: ‘There is the mindfulness enlightenment factor in me’; or when there is no mindfulness enlightenment factor in him, he understands: ‘There is no mindfulness enlightenment factor in me’; and he also understands how the unarisen mindfulness enlightenment factor arises, and how the arisen mindfulness enlightenment factor comes to fulfillment by development. “When there is the discrimination of phenomena enlightenment factor in him… When there is the energy enlightenment factor in him … When there is the rapture enlightenment factor in him … When there is the tranquillity enlightenment factor in him … When there is the concentration enlightenment factor in him … When there is the equanimity enlightenment factor in him, a monk understands: ‘There is the equanimity enlightenment factor in me’; or when there is no equanimity enlightenment factor in him, he understands: ‘There is no equanimity enlightenment factor in me’; and he also understands how the unarisen equanimity enlightenment factor arises, and how the arisen equanimity enlightenment factor comes to fulfillment by development.51 43. “In this way he dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena internally, externally, and both internally and externally.… And he dwells independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That is how a monk dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of the seven enlightenment factors.

[5. The Four Noble Truths]

44. “Again, monks, a monk dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of the Four Noble Truths.52 And how does a monk dwell contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of the Four Noble Truths? Here a monk understands as it really is: ‘This is suffering. This is the origin of suffering. This is the cessation of suffering. This is the way leading to the cessation of suffering.’ 45. “In this way he dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena internally, or he dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena externally, or he dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena both internally and externally. Or else he dwells contemplating in phenomena their nature of arising, or he dwells contemplating in phenomena their nature of vanishing, or he dwells contemplating in phenomena their nature of both arising and vanishing. Or else mindfulness that ‘there are phenomena’ is simply established in him to the extent necessary for bare knowledge and repeated mindfulness. And he dwells independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That is how a monk dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of the Four Noble Truths.

Do not give way to negligence Nor seek delight in sensual pleasures, But meditate with diligence So as to reach the perfect bliss.

“Rāhula, develop meditation that is like the earth; for when you develop meditation that is like the earth, arisen agreeable and disagreeable contacts will not invade your mind and remain.645 Just as people throw clean things and dirty things, excrement, urine, spittle, pus, and blood on the earth, and the earth is not repelled, humiliated, and disgusted because of that, so too, Rāhula, develop meditation that is like the earth; for when you develop meditation that is like the earth, arisen agreeable and disagreeable contacts will not invade your mind and remain. 14. “

Rāhula, develop meditation that is like water; for when you develop meditation that is like water, arisen agreeable and disagreeable contacts will not invade your mind and remain. Just as people wash clean things and dirty things, excrement, urine, spittle, pus, and blood in water, and the water is not repelled, humiliated, and disgusted because of that, so too, [424] Rāhula, develop meditation that is like water; for when you develop meditation that is like water, arisen agreeable and disagreeable contacts will not invade your mind and remain. 15.

“Rāhula, develop meditation that is like fire; for when you develop meditation that is like fire, arisen agreeable and disagreeable contacts will not invade your mind and remain. Just as people burn clean things and dirty things, excrement, urine, spittle, pus, and blood in fire, and the fire is not repelled, humiliated, and disgusted because of that, so too, Rāhula, develop meditation that is like fire; for when you develop meditation that is like fire, arisen agreeable and disagreeable contacts will not invade your mind and remain. 16.

“Rāhula, develop meditation that is like air; for when you develop meditation that is like air, arisen agreeable and disagreeable contacts will not invade your mind and remain. Just as the air blows on clean things and dirty things, on excrement, urine, spittle, pus, and blood, and the air is not repelled, humiliated, and disgusted because of that, so too, Rāhula, develop meditation that is like air; for when you develop meditation that is like air, arisen agreeable and disagreeable contacts will not invade your mind and remain. 17.

“Rāhula, develop meditation that is like space; for when you develop meditation that is like space, arisen agreeable and disagreeable contacts will not invade your mind and remain. Just as space is not established anywhere, so too, Rāhula, develop meditation that is like space; for when you develop meditation that is like space, arisen agreeable and disagreeable contacts will not invade your mind and remain. 18.

“Rāhula, develop meditation on loving-kindness; for when you develop meditation on loving-kindness, any ill will will be abandoned. 19.

“Rāhula, develop meditation on compassion; for when you develop meditation on compassion, any cruelty will be abandoned. 20.

“Rāhula, develop meditation on altruistic joy; for when you develop meditation on altruistic joy, any discontent will be abandoned. 21.

“Rāhula, develop meditation on equanimity; for when you develop meditation on equanimity, any aversion will be abandoned. 22. “Rāhula, develop meditation on foulness; for when you develop meditation on foulness, any lust will be abandoned. 23.

“Rāhula, develop meditation on the perception of impermanence; [425] for when you develop meditation on the perception of impermanence, the conceit ‘I am’ will be abandoned. 24.

“Rāhula, develop meditation on mindfulness of breathing. When mindfulness of breathing is developed and cultivated, it is of great fruit and great benefit. And how is mindfulness of breathing developed and cultivated, so that it is of great fruit and great benefit? 25. “Here, Rāhula, a bhikkhu, gone to the forest or to the root of a tree or to an empty hut, sits down; having folded his legs crosswise, set his body erect, and established mindfulness in front of him, ever mindful he breathes in, mindful he breathes out.646 26. “Breathing in long, he understands: ‘I breathe in long’; or breathing out long, he understands: ‘I breathe out long.’ Breathing in short, he understands: ‘I breathe in short’; or breathing out short, he understands: ‘I breathe out short.’ He trains thus: ‘I shall breathe in experiencing the whole body’; he trains thus: ‘I shall breathe out experiencing the whole body.’ He trains thus: ‘I shall breathe in tranquillising the bodily formation’; he trains thus: ‘I shall breathe out tranquillising the bodily formation.’ 27. “He trains thus: ‘I shall breathe in experiencing rapture’; he trains thus: ‘I shall breathe out experiencing rapture.’ He trains thus: ‘I shall breathe in experiencing pleasure’; he trains thus: ‘I shall breathe out experiencing pleasure.’ He trains thus: ‘I shall breathe in experiencing the mental formation’; he trains thus: ‘I shall breathe out experiencing the mental formation.’ He trains thus: ‘I shall breathe in tranquillising the mental formation’; he trains thus: ‘I shall breathe out tranquillising the mental formation.’ 28. “He trains thus: ‘I shall breathe in experiencing the mind’; he trains thus: ‘I shall breathe out experiencing the mind.’ He trains thus: ‘I shall breathe in gladdening the mind’; he trains thus: ‘I shall breathe out gladdening the mind.’ He trains thus: ‘I shall breathe in concentrating the mind’; he trains thus: ‘I shall breathe out concentrating the mind.’ He trains thus: ‘I shall breathe in liberating the mind’; he trains thus: ‘I shall breathe out liberating the mind.’ 29. “He trains thus: ‘I shall breathe in contemplating impermanence’; he trains thus: ‘I shall breathe out contemplating impermanence.’ He trains thus: ‘I shall breathe in contemplating fading away’; he trains thus: ‘I shall breathe out contemplating fading away.’ He trains thus: ‘I shall breathe in contemplating cessation’; he trains thus: ‘I shall breathe out contemplating cessation.’ He trains thus: ‘I shall breathe in contemplating relinquishment’; he trains thus: ‘I shall breathe out contemplating relinquishment.’ 30. “Rāhula, that is how mindfulness of breathing is developed and cultivated, so that it is of great fruit and great benefit. When mindfulness of breathing is developed and cultivated in this way, [426] even the final in-breaths and out-breaths are known as they cease, not unknown.”647

That is what the Blessed One said. The venerable Rāhula was satisfied and delighted in the Blessed One’s words.

Do not give way to negligence Nor seek delight in sensual pleasures, But meditate with diligence So as to reach the perfect bliss.

Master Gotama was a meditator and cultivated meditation, and he praised every type of meditation.”